Henry Hodges, Artifacts: An Introduction to Early Materials and Technology, Ronald P.Dictionary of Building Preservation, Ward Bucher, ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York City, 1996.Jack Odgen, Jewellery of the Ancient World, Rizzoli International Publications Inc., New York City, 1982.Oppi Untracht, Jewelry Concepts and Technology, Doubleday & Co., Inc., New York City, 1985.Scott, Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals, The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1991 Ralph Mayer, A Dictionary of Art Terms and Techniques, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1969 (also 1945 printing).G.S.Brady, Materials Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1971 Comment: p.J.Waite, "Architectural Metals: Their Deterioration and Stabilization" in Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practice, S.Timmons (ed.), Preservation Press, Washington DC, 1976, p.D.A.Scott, Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants, Conservation, Getty Publications, Los Angeles, 2002.Copper and its alloys are used for wire, electrical devices, pipes, cooking vessels, ammunition, ornamental trim, roofing, grillwork, coins, musical instruments, jewelry, picture supports, and sculptures. The main types of copper alloys are Brass (copper and zinc), low zinc brass, high zinc brass, leaded brass, forging brass, tin brass, Bronze (copper and tin), Phosphor bronze, Silicon bronze, Aluminum bronze, Nickel silver and Monel®. Metallic copper combines well with other metals to form alloys. In moist air, copper forms a protective green film of basic carbonate. It is high in electrical and thermal conductivity, easily fabricated, ductile, and polishes well. Today, copper is one of the most widely used metals. By about 3800 BCE, copper was made into bronze for weapons and knives. Copper was the first metal used by man, probably from about 8000 BCE, in the regions of Mesopotamia and India. The major mining producers are: Chile, Peru, China, Australia, United States, Russia, Indonesia, Canada, Poland, Kazakhstan. It occurs as a native metal and as ores of sulfide, sulfate and carbonate ( Azurite, Malachite, Cuprite, Chalcocite, Antlerite, Chalcopyrite, etc.). Copper is present in the earth's crust at a concentration of 70 ppm.
A reddish-brown, ductile, metallic element.
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